The weather is beginning to get pleasant and thoughts are turning to the coming season for ballooning. Many us have not pulled the fabric or sniffed the propane since last fall. Like spring training in the Citrus League, time has come to direct our attention to the task ahead. Getting back into ballooning shape.
The caution lights above are a reminder of potential hazards that we face, especially after a long winter layoff. Certainly not all inclusive they offer a starting point to begin thinking and getting ourselves prepared for the flying season ahead.
With an increase in flying activity during the Spring there also comes a rise in the number of accidents reported to the National Transportation Safety Board. Before examining, considering each of the caution lights depicted above it is important for us to have an understanding of the types of accidents that are most likely to occur.
The two charts are taken from NTSB statistics showing the phase of flight operation and the type of accident. In the phase of operation we have grouped approach to landing and landing phases together for greater emphasis. This is an area that continues to need improvement. Statistics give us an aloof view of a complex subject as to why accidents happen or how can they be prevented. Looking behind the numbers helps us to understand some of the main causes that contribute to accidents.
Most accidents are credited to "pilot error," a large catch-all category to explain the cause of the accident. Pilot error, however, is a vast oversimplification. Pilots, after all, do not intend to have an accident. Pilots usually intend to fly safely, but they sometimes make decisional errors. Sometimes skill or luck will be sufficient to get them out of situations. The objective of this special report is to provide the knowledge to avoid situations that require the use of their superior skill to overcome.
PILOT/HUMAN FACTORS
As the weak link in the elements of risk it is becoming more important for the pilot to deal with a multitude of variables. Judgement training, risk assessment, stress management, and health factors are assuming greater importance in flight safety.
Pilot judgement is the process of recognizing and analyzing all available information. This headwork is the intellectual process used to formulate decision making strategies. The necessary ingredients in good headwork are knowledge, vigilance, selective attention, risk identification and assessment, information processing and problem solving abilities. Headwork, when properly applied, minimizes the negative influence of attitudes and personality traits. The key then is for the pilot to separate the headwork aspect of decision making from the attitudinal part.
Effectively headwork requires us as a pilot to manage our attitude, stress, risk, and crew. That, combined with our skills and proceduresability to fly the balloonresults in our responding to a given situation. If our response is adequate we have a successful operation. If it is inadequate a mishap occurs.
Managing Attitude
How a pilot handles his or her responsibilities as "pilot-in-command" depends to a large degree upon ingrained attitudestoward safety, toward him or herself, and toward flying. Attitudes are learned and are not innate behavior. Good attitudes can be developedagain, through traininginto positive mental framework that encourages and produces good pilot judgement. On the other hand, bad pilot thinking habits created by previously learned poor attitudes can be "unlearned" or modified through training.
Below are five hazardous attitudes that each pilot needs to be aware of:
Anti-Authority - Don't tell me. Antidote - Follow the rules. They are usually right.
Impulsivity - Do somethingquickly. Antidote - Not so fast. Think first.
Invulnerability - It won't happen to me. Antidote - It could happen to me. Think about the worst accident, it could happen to you.
Macho - I can do it. Antidote - Taking chances is foolish.
Resignation - What's the use? Antidote - I'm not helpless. I can make a difference.
Being aware of these hazardous attitudes and applying the antidotes helps to control your attitude and eliminate one of the elements that interferes with headwork during the pilot decision making process.
Stress
The dictionary defines it as Pressure, Strain, esp.: a force that tends to distort a body. Stress interferes with headwork. The FAA, in training manuals, defines stress as the body's response to any demand made upon it by physical, physiological, or psychological factors known as stressors. Below is a look at each of these three areas.
Physical stressors include conditions associated with the environment. Temperature and humidity extremes, noise, vibration, and lack of oxygen. Think back to when you might have experienced some of these situations; a hot, humid afternoon flight, passengers bouncing in the basket, burner doesn't sound right, a siren on the ground, high-tension wires humming. In ballooning the physical work of packing equipment out of an isolated area can make a friendly crew pretty edgy.
Physiological stressors include conditions associated with our body. Fatigue, lack of physical fitness, sleep loss, missed meals (leading to low blood sugar levels), and illness. How late were you up last night before the morning flight? Did you have breakfast before the flight? Do you have a cold or other ailment that might affect your performance?
Psychological stressors are related to social or emotional factors. Death in a family, marriage, divorce, sick family member, work related problems, domestic fights. Or they may be related to mental workload such as analyzing a problem, navigating a balloon, or making decisions.
One or more of these elements can enter into play and affect your performance. Stress is a part of our everyday life and can be broken into two components, static and dynamic stress. Static stress is what we might call constant everyday stressors like financial problems, job pressures, 5 o'clock traffic, "having" to fly a sponsor, or just flying a balloon. Flying a balloon? Yes, even those things in life that you find enjoyable can be stressors since they represent a change in your environment and must be dealt with.
Dynamic stress are those stressors that develop as the situation evolves; burner sounds funny, passenger is shaking the basket, you're over the woods and fuel is getting low, or you are within ten feet of the key ring and heading right for it. The effects of these stressors are cumulative. Eventually they can add up to a level that makes it difficult to deal with the situation at hand.
Health
Beyond stress there are other health factors that a pilot should take into consideration. A number of these are common to our everyday lives and can have a profound adverse effect upon our abilities to safely pilot a balloon. Illness, medication, alcohol, fatigue, and emotion are all areas of concern to any one climbing into the basket with the intent of piloting.
Prior to every flight we, as pilots, preflight our aircraft to make sure it is in airworthy condition. But, what about ourselves? Are we "airworthy"? What external and internal pressures are affecting our performance? Below is a checklist to consider for your condition prior to flight. Ask yourself, I'M SAFE?
Illness: Even a minor illness suffered in day-to-day living can degrade performance of many piloting tasks vital to safe flight. Illness can produce fever and distracting symptoms that can impair judgement, memory, alertness, and the ability to make mental calculations or read charts completely.
Medication: Both prescribed and over-the-counter medications can seriously degrade performance. Many medications, such as tranquilizers, sedatives, strong pain relievers, and cough-suppressant preparations, have primary effects that many impair judgement, memory, alertness, coordination, vision and the ability to make mental calculations.
Stress: See the above.
Alcohol: Extensive research has provided a number of facts about the hazards of alcohol consumption and flying. As little as one ounce of liquor, one bottle of beer or four ounces of wine can impair flying skills. The FARs prohibit any pilot from performing any crew member duties within eight hours after drinking any alcoholic beverage or while under the influence of alcohol. However, because of the slow destruction of alcohol, a pilot may still be under the influence for more than eight hours after drinking a moderate amount.
Fatigue: Fatigue continues to be one of the strong hazards of flight safety, and it may not be apparent to a pilot until serious errors are made.
Eating: Not only a proper diet but how long since you have eaten can have an affect on your performance. For balloon pilots who rise early to launch at sunrise, the temptation is great to skip eating breakfast until after the flight. Not eating, however, can result in a lower blood sugar during a time when you as pilot are under a great deal of stress, like when landing.
TRAINING/PROFICIENCY
You have made the commitment to ballooning, bought the balloon, taken the flight instruction, passed the written exam, passed the oral exam, and passed the flight check. Now you are a licensed pilot. It says so in black and white. What a way to enjoy those lazy days just floating in the skies. As time goes along how much of what you learned do you remember?
Some pilots find it difficult to believe that human learning, once acquired, is not stored permanently in the mindas is possible with computers. But the fact is human intelligence retention is selective; we retain both skills and knowledge in proportion to their use and apparent importance to our survival. The process of forgetting can begin almost the moment we walk off the landing site with a newly acquired certificate or rating in hand. This is certainly true for general aviation pilots who may fly infrequently and irregularly, in between work and family demands on their time, i.e., those who fly for pleasure or recreation, or for occasional business convenience.
Just how rapidly a pilot's flight skills of pilots can erode documented in a study conducted at the FAA's Technical Center in Atlantic City, New Jersey. The study was designed to track the retention or loss of pilot skills over a 24 month period following certification as a private pilot (fixed wing); and to observe the effect of additional training on retention of the initial skill level. A secondary objective was to learn how accurate recently certificated private pilots were in predicting their ability to carry out basic flying tasks and in evaluating their actual performance.
The group of pilots studied consisted of 42 subjects, with an average age of 25. At intervals of 8, 16, and 24 months they were individually tested and rated on their performance of 29 basic flight tasks. Some were given additional training towards instrument and multi-engine rating, in the intervals between flight checks. The pilot subjects were all told in advance exactly which tasks they would be tested on. They were also invited to predict how well they thought they would do on each task, and to comment later on their performance. During the 24 months of the study the pilots, as a group, averaged about three hours of flying per month. However, those who received no advanced training flew less than one hour a month.
In scoring the subjects' performance on the 29 basic flight tasks, the investigators used as a base line the score recorded during their private pilot testing on these same tasks. Over the 24 month test period the group as a whole averaged a 33 percent increase in flight task errors. Pilots who had performed at least nine out of ten flight tasks correctly during their initial testing now completed only six out of ten tasks correctly, on the average. (Their written test scores also dropped by about 16 percent.)
The study concluded that recently certificated pilots who do not fly regularly undergo a rapid and significant deterioration of their ability to perform flight tasks. (No definition of what it is to "fly regularly" was attempted.) Some pilots in the study logged as many as six or more hours a month in the first eight months, including instrument and multi-engine training, yet committed nearly as many errors in the test at the end of the period as other pilots who flew less than one hour per month and received no advanced training.
The study observed that some types of advanced training was helpful in reducing skill erosion, but the effects were temporary in any case. Not only recently certificated pilots, but the majority of the general aviation pilot population was considered susceptible to rapid skill erosioni.e., "forgetting"in the absence of some form of recurrent training.
The self-prediction and self-evaluation forms completed by the subject pilots largely failed to conform to the errors in their actual flight task performance. In other words, their assumed level of competence was much higher than their demonstrated performance.
In this connection the FAA-required Biennial Flight Review (BFR) serves an important purpose in calling attention to unsuspected skill weaknesses in the basket. However, the responsibility for taking appropriate remedial actions, following the completion of a BFR, rests with the individual. Many pilots apparently assume that they can improve their skills by resolve alone, rather than by means of scheduled practice or trainingwhich is illusory.
Skill retention or loss in flying is generally divided into two kinds; cognitive/procedural and control orientedor, more simply put, mental versus manual tasks. The study confirmed the widely held belief that the most serious skill loss is in the mental area.
It should be noted that these errors did not necessarily constitute an unsafe flight condition, insofar as the pilots were able to complete the maneuver without incident, but there was clear evidence that flight skills had eroded since certification, and presumably would continue to erode given the present pattern of flight activity.
Some of the flight tasks that showed the least degree of skill loss during the 24-month test period were primarily control-oriented, with sources of immediate feedback.
Ideally, skill retention is best reinforced with continued flight practice, training, and testing.
Keeping in Shape
Within the general aviation population there is a "preferred risk" group whose likelihood of being involved in an accident is much lower than the overall rate; about one accident for every 450 pilots. What is more, the fatal accident rate for pilots in this special group is a remarkable one-fourth of the overall rate.
This special group sighted in an FAA study is the "WINGS" group, a popular term for the Pilot Proficiency Award Program, initiated in 1977 by the FAA for the benefit of general aviation pilots who recognize a need for assistance in retaining their operating skills at an optimum level. The program has a number of levels, or phases, is demanding of pilots' time, critical of their performance, provides an excellent opportunity for them to reevaluate their flight proficiency and knowledge, and, at the same time, earn their wings and certificate. For more information on The Wings program contact your local FAA.
The Balloon Federation of America has also recognized the need for a broad-scope pilot achievement award program to meet the needs of a rapidly growing sport. In 1982 the Pilot Achievement Award Program was developed by the hot air balloon events committee for the purpose of advancing the sport of hot air ballooning through the encouragement of continuing pilot education and safety along with participation in organized balloon-related activities. This program offers the opportunity, on a voluntary basis, for all pilots to earn personal recognition through a series of achievement awards based upon the advancement of their piloting skills, aeronautical knowledge and participation in BFA activities.
This program has seven achievement levels. Each level establishes a progressive standard of knowledge and skills which should reasonably be expected of a typical hot air balloon pilot advancing within the sport. The BFA Pilot Achievement Award Program considers numerous factors. The program is described in a pamphlet available from the BFA by writing to them at P.O. Box 400, Indianola, Iowa 50125.
In addition to participating in these two programs, pilots can practice good flying skills whether at a balloon rally or at home by establishing a goal for the flight and trying to achieve that goal. The goal can be a target, flight levels, time and distance, etc. By placing these types of parameters on the flight you strive to achieve a result.
Seminars and even "hangar flying" recounts of flights help to provide an important mental stimulus to the pilot's awareness of flight safety. Sitting around and thinking of "what if" situations and how you would handle them contribute to your wealth of knowledge.
Studies have concluded that certificated pilots who do not fly regularly undergo a rapid and significant deterioration of their ability to perform flight tasks. A safe pilot does more than stay current (three take-offs and landings in the last ninety days, and a current Biennial Flight Review). Practicing what we learned is as important as having learned our flying skills.
WEATHER
After pilot error or faulty judgement, adverse weather has traditionally ranked as the number two cause of accidents. For ballooning the number one weather factor is wind.
In ballooning a good working knowledge of the weather is vital to your career as a good, safe pilot. There are many sources from which to obtain weather information. Many of us start with TV weather to get a general idea of the big picture and what can be expected over the next few days.
As the planned flight draws near a weather briefing is obtained from Flight Service over a voice line or by computer with a modem using the DUAT system. Armed with this information you make a go/no-go decision.
Seems simple enough. Good weather, fly. Bad weather, stay home. Too often, however, pilots push marginal weather or get caught by rapidly changing weather conditions.
Understanding both macro and micro meteorology is essential for the balloon pilot. The most critical preflight skill you have as a pilot is your ability to read the weather, determining your own forecast. Beyond that the pilot also needs to acquire the ability to read existing conditions.
In evaluating current weather several factors come into play, such as the influence of local topography and the overall weather picture. Combined with the information you received in your preflight weather briefing, you have the tools to look for your own clues in the sky as to what to expect for the next several hours.
As pilot or crew it is important to both observe and interpret weather clues. Some of the indicators are very timely (they don't stay the same for a long period of time). By regularly monitoring the conditions you can avoid letting the wind and weather get ahead of you. Paying attention to the air can prevent you from flying into a bad situation.
Wind speed, color of the sky, density altitude, and stability index are helpful tools. Changes don't happen instantly. There will never be a change in the weather before there is a change in the wind. A difference in the airflow will always come first. The ability to make your own local, short term weather forecast is a worth while skill. It could even save your life.
(Additional articles; Nowcasting, by Maureen Lynch, Balloon Life, May 1986, Weather LoreFact or Fiction?, by Susan Peterson, Balloon Life, May 1992.)
BALLOON
Although equipment problems account for few accidents, that does not mean the balloon is an area to be ignored. Along with the pilot, environment and operation, the aircraft is one of the four elements of risk that can lead to a mishap.
Preflight of the aircraft is an important element of getting ready. A written checklist should be used to assist in determining that the system is ready for flight. The warning sign "No Shoulders" takes on a whole new meaning at 3,000 feet.
Just like the weather, each flight operation is different and can have an impact on the equipment used or vice-a-versa. Following are some factors to consider prior to launching.
Airworthiness of the system depends on factors like total time, wear and tear, overall age of the system components, and fabric porosity.
Type of balloon, does it have a single or double burner? Parachute, spring-top or pop-top?
Size, 65,000 cubic feet or 140,000 cubic feet? How many people will the basket hold?
Fuel capacity at the beginning of the flight. How much do you expect to have at the end of the flight?
Accessories, tank warmers, nitrogen, radios, drop lines, first aid kit.
The above is hardly an exhaustive list, but it begins the thought process as to what equipment is being used and how it will impact the flight operation.
OPERATION
Many balloon accidents have occurred during takeoff, approach to landing, and landing a balloon. These phases of the balloon operation can sometimes be taken for granted. There is more to safe flying than just burning and venting. Many different elements must be taken into consideration. Following are some elements that must be considered before and during flight.
Gross Weight
Empty weight is the basic balloon - the basket, burner, tanks, envelope unusable fuel, and other equipment (dropline, strikers, etc.). Useful load (payload) is the weight of pilot, passengers, baggage, and usable fuel. Gross weight is the empty weight plus the useful load of the balloon at takeoff. When a balloon is carrying the maximum load for which it is certificated, the takeoff weight is called the maximum allowable gross weight. Although your balloon is certificated for a specific maximum gross weight, it will not safely takeoff, fly, or land with this load under all conditions. For example, conditions that affect takeoff and climb performance include, elevation above sea level, temperature, humidity, wind, and obstacles.
As pilot-in-command you are responsible for knowing the maximum allowable gross weight of your balloon (published in the Balloon Flight Manual by the manufacturer of the balloon) and the gross weight at takeoff. Conditions may require the "off loading" of fuel, passengers, or baggage. As pilot you decide the loading option based on the type of mission to be flown. Maximum capacity of passengers for which the balloon is certificated may require less than full fuel. On the other hand, if you are interested in range, you may elect to carry a full fuel load and fewer passengers and/or less baggage.
The gross weight will affect the performance of the balloon. Get in the habit of calculating the gross weight before each flight. In the manufacturer's Flight Manual is a performance chart which will show graphically how much weight can be lifted at sea-level on a standard day given a range of outside air temperatures.
Density Altitude
Density altitude is defined as pressure altitude corrected for temperature. As temperature and/or altitude increases, the density of the air decreases. The balloon flies because of the difference between the density of the air inside the envelope and the outside atmosphere. The thinner the outside air, the more heat that must be generated inside the envelope to lower the inside density. Since all balloons have a restriction as to the maximum envelope temperature, this may limit the maximum allowable gross weight of the balloon.
Thus the higher elevation and/or temperature will have an effect on the lifting capability and responsiveness of your balloon. Most aircraft performance figures are derived on a sea-level altitude with a temperature of 59·F. There may be a notation on the performance chart that will list an approximate percentage decrease in performance for each one-thousand feet of altitude. Knowing the density altitude and the gross weight of your balloon will help to keep you within the operating limitations of the aircraft.
Wind
Wind conditions at takeoff or during flight can have very definite effects on the performance of the balloon. Calm conditions near the surface are the most ideal. However, this is not always the case. As pilot you may select a launch site that is sheltered from the wind. Several precautions must be taken during takeoff. First, the envelope is some 70 feet in the air and may be above the shelter. The top of the balloon will have air moving over it. This movement of air over the rounded surface will cause what is commonly referred to as false lift. When taking off from a sheltered area you will encounter a wind shear. This shear will both decrease the capacity of the balloon and cause it to accelerate in a horizontal direction.
Wind shears create a multitude of problems because of their effect on the envelope. The two main problems are 1) decreased capacity of the envelope and 2) the lifting effect of the air moving over the rounded envelope surface. This lifting action can be both upward, as in the case of false lift, and downward, as in false heavy/drop. The downward lift created over the bottom of the envelope is minor since the skin tension of the envelope is not as great as on the top portion of the balloon.
When landing over an obstacle to a protected area or in normal flight over an obstacle or rounded shape, like a hill, be cautious of rotors that develop on the lee side of the obstacle.
Obstacles
Because of horizontal movement as a result of wind, surrounding obstacles need to be considered when selecting a launch or landing site. Trees, buildings, powerlines, towers, and others can pose some serious consequences if a collision happens. Launching or landing downwind of an obstacle would be the ideal. Remember to leave a safe distance for a margin of error since wind directions could change unexpectedly.
Clear Above
Prior to takeoff the pilot should have a crew member, usually the crew chief, check for clearance overhead, Whether other balloons are in the same launch field/area or not, a check should be made. The balloon below has the right-of-way but that is of no value if someone else can't get out of the way in time to avoid a collision. Take a couple of extra seconds for safety and get a thumbs up clearance.
Planning For What If?
The time for planning how to deal with the unexpected is before it happens. Pose problems to yourself and other pilots. How would you handle the situation? Discuss it with others. This can be a valuable learning tool. Whenever pilots get together for fun flights or at rallies and the weather is bad, why not use the time to hold an impromptu safety session and discuss these types of problems?
Subjects such as flame outs on takeoff,